Everything about Nuclear Energy Policy totally explained
Nuclear energy policy is a national and international
policy concerning some or all aspects of
nuclear energy, such as
mining for
nuclear fuel, extraction and processing of nuclear fuel from the ore,
generating electricity by
nuclear power,
enriching and storing spent nuclear fuel and
nuclear fuel reprocessing.
Nuclear energy policies often include the regulation of energy use and standards relating to the
nuclear fuel cycle. Other measures include efficiency standards, safety regulations,
emission standards,
fiscal policies, and
legislation on energy trading, transport of
nuclear waste and
contaminated materials, and their storage. Governments might subsidize nuclear energy and arrange international treaties and trade agreements about the import and export of
nuclear technology,
electricity,
nuclear waste, and
uranium.
Since nuclear energy and
nuclear weapons technologies are closely related,
military aspirations can act as a factor in energy policy decisions. The fear of
nuclear proliferation influences some international nuclear energy policies.
The global picture
Installed nuclear capacity rose relatively quickly since the 1950s, but since the late 1980s capacity has risen much more slowly, reaching 366 GW in 2005, primarily due to Chinese expansion of nuclear power. Between around 1970 and 1990, more than 50 GW of capacity was under construction (peaking at over 150 GW in the late 70s and early 80s).
The
growth slowed in the 1980s because of
environmentalist opposition, high
interest rates, and
energy conservation prompted by the
oil shock in 1973, the
energy crisis in 1979 and the
Three Mile Island accident and
Chernobyl disaster. In 1983 an unexpected fall in fossil fuel prices stopped most new construction of
nuclear power plants.
Electricity liberalization in the United States and Europe during the 1980s and 1990s increased the financial risk of investing in
nuclear power. More than two-thirds of all nuclear plants ordered after January
1970 were eventually canceled.
Nuclear power plants, however, don't directly generate any greenhouse gases, some governments have therefore returned to nuclear power as part of their strategies on tackling
global warming and
climate change.
The use of nuclear energy is limited to a relatively small number of countries in the world. As of 2007, only 31 countries, or 16% of the 191
United Nations Member States, operated nuclear power plants. In 1999 the countries that relied most on nuclear energy were
France (with 75% of its electricity generated by nuclear power stations),
Lithuania (73%),
Belgium (58%),
Bulgaria,
Slovakia and
Sweden (47%),
Ukraine (44%) and
South Korea (43%). The largest producer of nuclear capacity was the
USA with 28% of worldwide capacity, followed by France (18%) and Japan (12%).
Policy options
Nuclear power phase-out
A nuclear power phase-out is the discontinuation of usage of
nuclear power for energy production. Often initiated because of
concerns about nuclear power, phase-outs usually include shutting down
nuclear power plants and looking towards other fuels or
alternative energy.
In 1980s, a
popular movement against nuclear power gained strength in the Western world, based on the fear of a possible
nuclear accident and on fears of latent
radiation. The 1979
Three Mile Island accident and the 1986
Chernobyl disaster played a key role in stopping new plant construction and starting nuclear power phase out in several countries.
Germany is seven years into a nuclear exit programme for its 17 reactors, which is due to be completed in 2021.
Nuclear energy renaissance
After a period of decline in the use of nuclear technology following the accidents in the Three Mile Island and Chernobyl, there has more lately been renewed interest in nuclear energy. Some policymakers have returned to the 'nuclear option' because they see it as potentially able to address
dwindling global oil reserves and
global warming with less
greenhouse gas emissions than
fossil fuel. The parliamentary decision in 2002 in
Finland to grant a license for the construction of a
fifth nuclear power station was seen as very significant in that it was the first such decision to build a new nuclear power plant in Western Europe for more than a decade. After the Finnish decision several other countries announced their intention to consider construction of new nuclear reactors.
The prospect of a nuclear renaissance has revived debates about nuclear waste and safety issues. Some developing countries which plan to go nuclear have very poor industrial safety records and problems with political corruption. Most countries with nuclear power agree that burying spent fuel deep underground is the best option for waste disposal, but no such long-term waste repositories yet exist.
There are also concerns that a nuclear renaissance will lead to a
significantly increased risk of
nuclear weapons proliferation and
nuclear terrorism.
Energy security
For some countries, nuclear power affords energy independence. In the case of nuclear power phase-out the alternatives for energy generation are needed if they don't want to become dependent on imports. In the words of the French, "We have no
coal, we've no
oil, we've no
gas, we've no choice."Therefore, the discussion of a future for nuclear energy is intertwined with a discussion of
energy security and use of energy mix, including
renewable energy development. The most discussed alternatives to nuclear power include
hydroelectricity,
fossil energy,
solar energy, and
biomass. A comprehensive public opinion survey, performed in May and June 2006 in the European Union member countries, concluded that EU citizens perceive great future promise in the use of renewable energies, but despite majority opposition, nuclear energy also has its place in the future energy mix.
Nuclear power has been relatively unaffected by
embargoes, and uranium is mined in reliable countries, including Australia and Canada. Nuclear power also has a high
energy return on energy investment. Using life cycle analysis, it takes 4 to 5 months of energy production from the nuclear plant to fully pay back the initial energy investment.
Nuclear policy arguments
Policymakers must balance their decisions so that the concerns surrounding nuclear power are addressed. These include the problem of storing
radioactive waste for indefinite periods, the potential for severe
radioactive contamination by accident or sabotage, and the possibility that its use could in some countries lead to the
proliferation of
nuclear weapons.
Proponents, including some national governments, claim that these risks are small and can be lessened with new technology. They note that
France and all of the industrialised economies of
Asia see nuclear power as a key economic strategy, that the safety record is already good when compared to other energy forms, that it releases much less pollution than coal power, and that nuclear power is a
sustainable energy or even
renewable energy source.
Opponents, including some national governments and many
environmental groups, claim nuclear power is an uneconomic, unsound and potentially dangerous energy source and dispute whether the costs and risks can be reduced through new technology. They note that
Germany,
Spain, and
Australia are commercializing
renewable energy and
energy efficiency technologies.
Policies by territory
Argentina,
Brazil,
Canada,
China,
Finland,
India,
Iran,
Lithuania,
North Korea,
Romania,
Russia,
Pakistan,
Japan,
South Korea,
Taiwan,
Ukraine, and the U.S. are currently planning or building new nuclear reactors or reopening old ones.
Bulgaria,
Czech Republic,
Egypt,
France,
Indonesia,
Israel,
Slovakia,
South Africa,
Turkey, and
Vietnam are considering doing this.
Armenia,
Belgium,
Germany,
Hungary,
Mexico,
Netherlands,
Slovenia,
Spain,
Sweden,
Switzerland, and
United Kingdom have nuclear reactors but currently no advanced proposals for expansion.
Australia,
Austria,
Denmark,
Greece,
Ireland and
Norway have no nuclear plants and have restricted new plant constructions.
Poland stopped the construction of a plant.
Belgium,
Germany,
Netherlands,
Spain and
Sweden decided not to build new plants or intend to phase out nuclear power, although still mostly relying on nuclear energy.
On
31 July 2007,
Pope Benedict XVI in his message marking the 50th anniversary of the founding of the
International Atomic Energy Agency backed the increased peaceful use of nuclear energy to promote development for the world's poor. "The Holy See, fully approving of the IAEA's goal, has been a member from the organization's foundation and continues to support its activity," Pope Benedict XVI said.
Africa
Algeria
Since 1995 Algeria operates research reactors at Draria and Ain Ouessara. It signed nuclear cooperation agreements with Russia in January 2007, with the United States in June 2007, and with China in March 2008. Algeria has discussed nuclear cooperation also with France.
Egypt
In
1964, a 150 MWe and in
1974 a 600 MWe nuclear power stations were proposed. The Nuclear Power Plants Authority (NPPA) was established in 1976, and in 1983 the El Dabaa site on the Mediterranean coast was selected. In March 2008, Egypt signed with Russia an agreement on the peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
Morocco
Morocco constructs a 2 MW Triga research reactor. The government has plans to build a nuclear power plant in 2016-2017 at
Sidi Boulbra in cooperation with Russia's
Atomstroyexport, and desalination plant at Tan-Tan on the Atlantic coast in cooperation with China. On
27 July 2007 Nigeria's President
Umaru Yar'Adua has urged the country to embrace nuclear power in order to meet its growing energy needs.
South Africa
South Africa is the only country in
Africa with nuclear power plants and it currently has an expansion policy based upon the
Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR). Power company
Eskom plans to build 20 GW of nuclear power by 2025. The first plant with capacity of between 3300 and 4000 MW could be completed by 2017. Several groups, including
Earthlife Africa and
Koeberg Alert, oppose these measures.
Tunisia
Tunisia evaluates the possibility to build a 600 MWe nuclear plant. In December
2006 a cooperation agreement on peaceful use of nuclear energy was signed with France, focused on nuclear power and desalination.
Bangladesh
Bangladesh considered building a nuclear power plant for the first time in 1961. Since then, several feasibility studies have been carried out, affirming the feasibility of the project. In 1963 the Rooppur site was selected. More recently, in 2001 Bangladesh adopted a national Nuclear Power Action Plan. The first nuclear power plant with a generation capacity between 700 MW and 1000 MW will be installed by 2015 at Rooppur in Pabna district.
China
China has 10 reactors operating, 5 reactors under construction, and is planning or proposing an additional 25.
Gulf states
Six member states of the
Gulf Cooperation Council (
Kuwait,
Saudi Arabia,
Bahrain, the
United Arab Emirates,
Qatar and
Oman) have announced that the Council is commissioning a study on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. In February 2007 they agreed with the IAEA to cooperate on a feasibility study for a regional nuclear power and desalination program, which according to Saudi Arabia may emerge about 2009. On
29 March 2008, Bahrain signed a memorandum of understanding on nuclear energy with the United States.
India
India has 17 reactors operating, 6 reactors under construction, and is planning an additional 4, with 15 more proposed.
Indonesia
In the mid 1990s,
Indonesia conducted a feasibility study into constructing 12 nuclear power plants. The plan was postponed due to criticism from environmentalists and the Asian regional economic crisis in 1997. In 2006, Indonesian Government announced a plan to build its first major nuclear power plant on
Muria peninsula,
Jepara district,
Central Java by 2015. However, this decision isn't final yet. This plan is heavily criticized by environmental organisations.
In June 2007 was announced that in
Gorontalo will be set up 70 MW
floating nuclear power plant of Russian origin.
Iran
In the mid 1970s,
Iran started construction of two PWR units at [Bushehr], but the project was suspended in 1979. In 1994, Russia agreed to complete unit 1 of Bushehr nuclear power plant and it's expected to be completed late in 2007. Also second reactor is planned at Bushehr. It also announced that a new nuclear power plant is to be built at Darkhovin in Khūzestān Province, where two plants were about to be constructed in 1970s.
Japan
Japan has 55 reactors of total capacity 47,577 MWe (49,580 MWe gross) on line, with 2 reactors (2,285 MWe) under construction and 12 reactors (16,045 MWe) planned. Nuclear energy accounts for about 30% of Japan's total electricity production, from 47.5 GWe of capacity (net). There are plans to increase this to 37% in 2009 and 41% in 2014.
On 16 July 2007 a severe earthquake hit the region where Tokyo Electric's
Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant is located. The plant with seven units is the largest single nuclear power station in the world. All of the reactors were shut down and are expected to remain closed for damage verification and repairs for at least one year.
Jordan
According to the country's energy minister,
Jordan intends to build its first nuclear power plant by 2015. It will be used for electricity generation and desalination. The possible purchase of Candu heavy-water reactors has been discussed with Canada.
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan shut down its only NPP in 1999. In 2003, the Minister of Energy and Mines announced plans for the construction of a new NPP within the next 15 years. The two–three unit NPP is to be established on the shores of
Lake Balkhash in the Karaganda region of central Kazakhstan.
North Korea
North Korea had two
PWRs at Kumho under construction until construction was suspended in November 2003. On
September 19,
2005 North Korea pledged to stop building
nuclear weapons and agreed to international inspections in return for energy aid. The agreement hinted that this aid might in future include one or more
light water reactors.
South Korea
South Korea has
18 operational nuclear power reactors, with two more under construction and scheduled to go online by 2004.
Malaysia
Although
Malaysia has established Nuclear Agency and been actively involved in the periodic review of the nuclear option, currently there's no nuclear power generation plant neither is there a plan to embark on a nuclear power programme in the foreseeable future.
Myanmar
On 15 May 2007,
Myanmar and Russia signed an agreement to construct a nuclear research center in Myanmar. The center will comprise a 10 MWt light water reactor working on 20%-enriched U-235, an activation analysis laboratory, a medical isotope production laboratory, silicon doping system, nuclear waste treatment and burial facilities.
Pakistan
Pakistan operates two reactors, is building a third, and is considering two more. The current total nuclear generating capacity is 425 MWe.
The Philippines
In the
Philippines, in 2004, President
Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo outlined her
energy policy. It included plans to convert the
Bataan Nuclear Power Plant, one of their two reactors, into a gas powered facility.
Syria
Syria abandoned its plans to build a VVER-440 reactor after the Chernobyl accident.
Taiwan
Taiwan has three operational reactors, but support for nuclear energy is strongly split between the
KMT and the
Democratic Progressive Party. As long as the
DPP is in power, no new reactors will be built.
Thailand
According to the energy minister of
Thailand, the state owned
Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand will build its first two nuclear power plants by
2021. This decision was criticized by Greenpeace, which suggested to focus on alternative power supplies from hydropower and smaller biofuel plants before risking nuclear.
Vietnam
In the 1980s
Vietnam undertook two preliminary nuclear power studies, which stated need to introduce nuclear energy for satisfying the growth in the electricity demand. A national energy plan includes the nuclear power capacity to be commenced by 2010. In February 2006, the government announced the first nuclear power plant would be commissioned by 2017.
Oceania
Australia
Australia has no nuclear power plants. However, Australia has up to 40% of the world's uranium deposits and is the world's second largest producer of
uranium after
Canada.
New Zealand
New Zealand enacted the
New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987 which prohibits the stationing of nuclear weapons on the territory of New Zealand and the entry into New Zealand waters of nuclear armed or
propelled ships. This Act of Parliament, however, doesn't prevent the construction of nuclear power plants, but a 2008 survey shows that relatively few New Zealanders favour nuclear power as the best energy source.
Europe
Albania
Albania presently has no nuclear power plants, but there are plans for the construction of a nuclear power plant at
Durrës. In addition to meet the domestic energy demands, the plan foresees electricity export to neighbouring Balkan countries and Italy. The Albanian nuclear energy will be exported to Italy via an underwater cable, which will link the Italian and Albanian electricity networks.
Austria
Austria has no operational nuclear power plants. A nuclear power station was built during the 1970s at
Zwentendorf,
Austria, but its start-up was prevented by a popular vote in 1978. On
July 9,
1997, the
Austrian Parliament voted unanimously to maintain the country's anti-nuclear policy.
Belarus
Belarus presently has no nuclear power plants. However, in mid 2006, the Government of
Belarus approved a plan for the construction of an initial 2000 MWe PWR nuclear power plant in the
Mahilyow Voblast. In February 2007 it was announced that construction would start in 2008, for commissioning in 2014-2015 (later: 2015-2020).
Belgium
In 2003
Belgium's Government, then a coalition which included the
Green party Groen!, passed legislation which stipulated that no new reactors would be built and that
Belgium's seven reactors would close between 2015-2025. When the law was being passed, there was speculation it would be overturned again as soon as an administration without Groen! was in power. A report published in 2005 by the National Planning Bureau noted that in many parts of Belgium nuclear power makes up more than 50% of the electricity generated. It would therefore be difficult for Belgium to adhere to the emissions targets of the
Kyoto Protocols without nuclear power.
Bulgaria
Bulgaria operated 6 reactors, but four of them were deactivated in 2002 as a condition of joining the
European Union. On
18 January 2008 Atomstroyexport and Bulgaria's
National Electric Company (NEC) signed the contract for the design, construction and installation of two new units at the
Belene Nuclear Power Plant, which will be AES-92 VVER-1000 reactors, designed by Atomstroyexport and using control and automation systems from Carsib, a joint consortium of Areva and Siemens.
The total cost of the Belene project is now estimated to be around €7 billion (€4 billion for the power stations plus associated infrastructure development costs). Critics say the project is economically flawed, open to corruption and mismanagement, and will cement Russian dominance of Bulgaria's energy sector. The government says global energy pressures make the project necessary.
Czech Republic
The
Czech Energy Policy of 2004 envisages building two or more large reactors to replace
Dukovany power plant after 2020. The plans announced in 2006 envisage construction of one 1500 MWe unit at
Temelín after 2020, and a second to follow.
Denmark
Denmark has no nuclear power plants. The Parliament determined in 1985 that nuclear power wasn't to be generated and that the sites that had been reserved for the construction of nuclear power plants were to be released. It was agreed that Danish energy planning should be based on the assumption that no new nuclear power plants would be built. At the same time, about 9% of total consumed electricity is an imported nuclear energy. Three research reactors at
Risø National Laboratory are in the process of being decommissioned.
Energy companies have proposed also construction of sixth and seventh reactors, although no decision made yet. Public opinion is against a sixth reactor, according to a 2008 poll. Fifty-three per cent of survey respondents opposed building the country’s sixth nuclear reactor, while 34 per cent supported it.
France
After the oil crisis of the early 1970s, the French government decided in 1974 to move towards self-sufficiency in electricity production, primarily through the construction of
nuclear power stations. France today produces around 78.1% of its electricity through nuclear power. Because France produces an overall electricity surplus, it exports nuclear-produced energy. Some of this goes to countries which are ostensibly against the use of nuclear energy, such as Germany. The Board of Electricité de
France (
EDF) has approved construction of a 1630 MWe
EPR at Flamanville, Normandy. Construction is expected to begin in late 2007, with completion in 2012.
Germany
In 2000, the
German government, consisting of a coalition including the Green party
Alliance -90 officially announced its intention to phase out
nuclear power in Germany.
Jürgen Trittin, the Minister of Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, reached an agreement with energy companies on the gradual shut down of
the country's nineteen nuclear power plants and a cessation of civil usage of nuclear power by 2020. Legislation was enacted in the
Nuclear Exit Law. The power plants in
Stade and Obrigheim were turned off on
November 14,
2003, and
May 11,
2005, respectively. Dismantling of the plants is scheduled to begin in 2007. But the Nuclear Exit Law didn't ban enrichment stations - one in Gronau has received permission to extend operations. There have been concerns over the safety of the phase-out, particularly in terms of the transport of nuclear waste. In 2005
Angela Merkel won the
German federal election with the CDU party. She has subsequently announced to re-negotiate with energy companies the time limit for a shut down of nuclear power stations. But as part of her pact with the SPD, with whom the CDU form a coalition, the phase-out policy has for now been retained.
Greece
Although
Greece has established Atomic Energy Commission (GAEC), a decision has been made not to implement a nuclear power program to generate nuclear electricity. There is one operational nuclear research reactor and one sub-critical assembly.
Ireland
Ireland presently has no nuclear power plants. However, a nuclear power plant was proposed in 1968. It was to be built during the 1970s at
Carnsore Point in
County Wexford. The plan envisioned four plants to be built at the site, but was dropped in 1981 after strong opposition from environmental groups and because of flattening energy demand, and Ireland has remained without nuclear power. Despite opposing nuclear power and nuclear fuel reprocessing at
Sellafield, Ireland is due to open an interconnector to the mainland UK to buy electricity, which is, in some part, the product of nuclear power.
In April 2006, a government-commissioned report by
Forfas pointed to the need to reconsider nuclear power in order "to secure its long-run energy security". Relatively small-scale nuclear plants were envisaged. In 2007,
Ireland's Electricity Supply Board made it known that it would consider a joint venture with a major EU energy company to build nuclear capacity. A moratorium on the construction of new plants, originally in effect from 1987 until 1993, has since been extended indefinitely.
Premier Minister
Silvio Berlusconi reopened the nuclear power debate in 2005, noting Italy imports around 85% of its total energy. In
13 November 2007, during his speech at the
World Energy Council in Rome, Italy's nuclear stance was criticized by CEO of
Eni,
Paolo Scaroni. On
22 May 2008, Italy's industry minister announced that the government scheduled the start of construction of the first Italian new nuclear-powered plant by 2013.
Lithuania
In 2006,
Lithuanian,
Latvian and
Estonian power companies carried out the feasibility study for construction of the new nuclear power plant in Lithuania to replace existing
Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant, scheduled to be shut down in 2009. The study shows that the nuclear power plant project is feasible.
The Netherlands
In 1994, the
Netherland's parliament voted to phase out nuclear power after a discussion of nuclear waste management. In 1997 the power station at
Dodewaard was shut down and the government decided it was planning to end
Borssele's operating license in 2003. But in 2003, with a
new government in power, the shut down was postponed to 2013. In 2006 the government decided that Borssele will remain open until 2033, if it can comply with the highest safety standards. The owners,
Essent and
Delta will invest 500 million euro in sustainable energy, together with the government - money which the government claims otherwise should have been paid to the plants owners as compensation.
Norway
No nuclear power plant has ever been established in
Norway, however it has legal framework for licensing the construction and operation of nuclear installations. Currently there are discussions about usage of nuclear energy, which is supported by the most of industry leaders.
Statkraft together with
Vattenfall,
Fortum and energy investment company Scatec would like to build a
thorium-fueled power plant, which is safer than uranium-fueled plant.
Poland
In the 1980s,
Poland had four Russian reactors under construction, but the project was canceled in 1990. The Polish company
PSE participates in the nuclear project of Lithuania. In 2004, the Government of Portugal rejected a proposal to reconsider its decision.
Russia
Russia operates 31 reactors, is building 3, and has plans for another 27. Russia has also begun building
floating nuclear power plants. The £100 million ($204.9 million, 2 billion руб) vessel, the
Lomonosov, to be completed in 2010, is the first of seven plants that Moscow says will bring vital energy resources to remote Russian regions. While producing only a small fraction of the power of a standard Russian land-based plant, it can supply power to a city of 200,000, or function as a
desalination plant. The
Russian atomic energy agency said that at least 12 countries were also interested in buying floating nuclear plants.
Slovakia
Italian power company
Enel, a majority shareholder of the Slovak power company, plans investment of €1.6 billion for completion of the
Mochovce Nuclear Power Plant units 3 and 4 by 2011-2012. In January 2006 the Slovak Government approved a new energy strategy incorporating these plans, with capacity uprates at Mochovce NPP units 1 and 2, and at
Bohunice Nuclear Power Plant units 3 and 4.
Slovenia
The
Slovenian
nuclear plant in Krško (co-owned with
Croatia) is scheduled to be closed by 2023, and there are no plans to build further nuclear plants. But the debate on whether and when to close the Krško plant intensified after the
2005/06 winter energy crisis. In May 2006 a Slovenian newspaper claimed the government had held internal discussions on adding a new 1000MW block into Krško after 2020.
Spain
In
Spain a
moratorium was enacted by the socialist government in 1983. The government has announced the country will phase out nuclear power in favour of
renewables. The Prime Minister of Spain confirmed that nuclear energy will be phased out. The first unit (at
José Cabrera nuclear power plant) was shut down at the end of 2006.
Sweden
Following the
Three Mile Island accident in the
United States in 1979, the Swedish Government decided, after a referendum, that no further
nuclear power plants should be built and that a nuclear power phase-out should be completed by 2010. But in 1998, when electricity from hydropower accounted for 48% of the country's production of electricity, the government decided to build no further hydropower plants in order to protect its national
water resources. This is likely to set back the planned phase-out of
Sweden's nuclear reactors, perhaps until 2045. Indeed the current Swedish government is proposing to end the nuclear phase-out, while still maintaining a moratorium on new construction at least until 2010.
Switzerland
Switzerland has
five nuclear reactors, and around 40% of its electricity is generated by nuclear power. Environmentalists have opposed these proposals.
The United Kingdom
The future of nuclear power in the United Kingdom is currently under review. The country has a number of reactors which are currently reaching the end of their working life, and it's currently undecided how that'll be replaced. The UK is also failing to reach its targets for reduction on CO
2 emissions, a situation which may be worsened if new nuclear power stations are not built. The
UK also uses a large proportion of gas fired power stations, which produce relatively low (compared to coal) CO
2 emissions, but there have been recent difficulties in obtaining adequate gas supplies. The UK government has also recently appointed a new pro-nuclear energy minister.
In January 2008, the
United Kingdom confirmed a new generation of nuclear power plants to be built in order to meet the country's growing energy crisis. The government hopes that the first station will be operational before 2020.
North America
Canada
Canada operates 18 reactors accounting for about 15% of electrical generation, mostly in the province of Ontario. Increasing demands for electricity and
Kyoto Agreement obligations have led Ontario to announce that it'll maintain existing nuclear capacity by replacing older reactors with new ones.
Mexico
Mexico has
one nuclear power plant, which consists of two boiling water reactors. In February 2007, contracts with
Iberdrola and
Alstom were signed to update the reactors by
2010. A committee has been established to recommend on new nuclear plants and the most recent proposal is for one unit to come on line by 2015 with seven more to follow it by 2025.
United States
In 2007, there were 104 (69 pressurized water reactors, 35 boiling water reactors) commercial nuclear generating units licensed to operate in the United States, producing approximately 20% of the country's energy needs. In absolute terms, the United States is the world's largest supplier of commercial nuclear power. Future development of nuclear power in the U.S. was enabled by the
Energy Policy Act of 2005 and is co-ordinated by the
Nuclear Power 2010 Program. On
September 22, 2005 it was announced that two sites had been selected to receive new power reactors. On September 25, 2007
South Texas Project filed the application for a
Combined Construction and Operating License (COL). Two new GE-Hitachi
ABWRs will be built adjacent to the existing
PWRs. This is the first application for a new nuclear plant in the US for nearly 30 years. This was followed in October, 2007 by
TVA and
NuStart filing for a COL for two
Westinghouse AP1000s to be built at
Bellefonte in Hollywood, Alabama. The U.S.
NRC expects to receive a total of 30 applications for new nuclear power reactors by 2010 using the new streamlined COL application process. If approved, this would result in a significant expansion of nuclear power in the United States. Most of the new reactors are expected to be constructed next to existing plants. However, there's a history of
anti-nuclear activism in the USA and many groups oppose the building of new nuclear power stations.
On
September 22,
2005 it was announced that two sites in the U.S. had been selected to receive new power reactors (exclusive of the new power reactor scheduled for
INL). In August 2007, TVA was approved to restart construction of
Watts Bar unit 2. The reactor is scheduled to be completed and come online in 2013. However, as of February 2008, five applications for
Combined Licenses (COL) have been submitted
(External Link
). Note that submission of these applications are not necessarily declarations of intent to build new power plants, but submission of a COL application is one of the final steps a utility must take before construction can begin on a new nuclear reactors. In April 2008,
Southern Company signed a contract for two AP1000 reactors to be built at its
Vogtle facility. This is the first order for a new nuclear plant in the United States in 30 years.
South America
Argentina
In
Argentina, about 6% of the electricity comes from 2 operational reactors: The
Embalse Río Tercero plant, a CANDU6 reactor, and the
Atucha 1 plant, a PHWR German design. In 2001, the plant was modified to burn Slightly Enriched Uranium, making it the first PHWR reactor to burn that fuel worldwide. Atucha originally was planned to be a complex with various reactors. Atucha 2 (similar to Aucha 1 but more powerful) is actually more than half-built, however it never entered into operation. Argentina also has some other research reactors, and exports nuclear technology. Nucleoelectrica of Argentina and Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd are negotiating over the contracts and project delivery model for a new 740 MWe Candu 6 nuclear power plant. It will be reviewed and approved by the Government of Argentina by the end of April
2008.
Brazil
Nuclear energy accounts for about 4% of the Brazil's electricity. It produced by
two reactors at
Angra, which is Brazil's sole nuclear power plant, which consists of two
Pressurized water reactors. A third reactor, Angra III, with a projected output of 1,350 MW, is planned to be finished by 2010, but work has been paralyzed due to environmental concerns and lack of funds. By
2025 Brazil plans to build seven more reactors.
Chile
Although there's no commitment from the government to introduce nuclear energy, the debate is ongoing. In February 2007, the Energy Ministry of
Chile announced that it was beginning technical studies into the development of nuclear power.
Further Information
Get more info on 'Nuclear Energy Policy'.
|
External Link Exchanges
Do you know how hard it is to get a link from a large encyclopaedia? Well we're different and will prove it. To get a link from us just add the following HTML to your site on a relevant page:
<a href="http://nuclear_energy_policy.totallyexplained.com">Nuclear energy policy Totally Explained</a>
Then simply click through this link from your web page. Our crawlers will verify your link, extract the title of your web page and instantly add a link back to it. If you like you can remove the words Totally Explained and embed the link in article text.
As long as your link remains in place, we'll keep our link to you right here. Please play fair - our crawlers are watching. Your site must be closely related to this one's topic. Any kind of spamming, dubious practises or removing the link will result in your link from us being dropped and, potentially, your whole site being banned. |
